How does scientific disinformation arise, and why has it become such a pressing issue for medicine and research? In today’s complex information landscape, scientific findings, clinical data and biomedical innovations circulate rapidly in the public sphere, where they are often simplified, taken out of context or misinterpreted. Understanding how these processes take shape is not just a matter of communication; it also concerns how knowledge itself is produced, shared and ultimately put into practice.
This is where epistemology and bioethics come in. The former examines how scientific knowledge is constructed and validated, while the latter addresses the ethical implications of decisions in medicine and the life sciences. Bringing these perspectives together makes it possible to look beyond research results alone and consider the responsibilities involved in applying and communicating them.
At Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, this kind of interdisciplinary exchange underpins a range of research and teaching activities. Here, scientific inquiry, philosophy of science and bioethics are brought into dialogue to better understand the changing nature of medicine and the challenges posed by disinformation in public debate.
Distinguishing between scientific disinformation and misinformation is essential if we are to interpret research findings accurately. Scientific knowledge now circulates in a highly fragmented public arena, where misleading claims, partial readings and inaccurate information can spread quickly.
Epistemology—the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and limits of knowledge—draws a clear distinction between two forms of error:
Looking at these phenomena through an epistemological lens helps clarify how scientific knowledge moves through society and highlights the need for clearer, more responsible forms of communication—especially in fields such as medicine, where data can be difficult to interpret without specialist expertise.
Cognitive biases—systematic distortions in the way we process information—also play a significant part. They can reinforce mistaken beliefs and contribute to both disinformation and misinformation.
A familiar example is the use of antibiotics to treat influenza. Even though antibiotics are ineffective against viral infections, some patients report feeling better after taking them and conclude that the drug was responsible. In reality, this perceived improvement often reflects the natural course of the illness, combined with cognitive bias. Such “illusions of recovery” can encourage inappropriate treatments and help entrench false beliefs.
Examining disinformation, misinformation and cognitive bias is not simply about identifying errors or deception. It is also about developing a more critical understanding of scientific evidence and its wider social implications.
In this context, LabDisinformazione.it was established as an observatory dedicated to the study of digital disinformation. Coordinated by Professor Carlo Martini, Associate Professor of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science, it is the first initiative of its kind in Italy and aims to promote digital awareness among younger generations. The programme is freely available to upper secondary schools.
Scientific research does more than produce measurable results; it raises questions about how those results should be applied and what they mean for people’s lives. Once scientific knowledge moves into clinical settings, new issues come to the fore: its impact on patients and the decisions clinicians must make.
Bioethics addresses precisely these concerns. It goes beyond questions of accuracy or error and considers the moral dimensions of medical practice. In doing so, it shows how philosophical reflection can inform scientific debate, offering tools to assess responsibility, risk and the consequences of biomedical interventions.
The protection of research participants, the implications of experimental design and the management of risk all require clear and widely accepted standards. Over the twentieth century, several landmark documents helped establish the foundations of clinical research ethics:
Philosophical analysis also considers the different stages of scientific research, typically divided into laboratory research, translational research and clinical research.
The distinction between translational and clinical research is not only procedural; it also raises important questions about responsibility and safety. Translational research seeks to turn laboratory findings into clinical applications, and at this stage it is crucial to ensure that innovation leads to genuine patient benefit while meeting established safety standards.
Key issues include:
Early Spring Meeting 2026: bridging research, industry and philosophy
These themes were discussed by Professor Massimo Reichlin, Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy and Professor of Moral Philosophy, at the Early Spring Meeting 2026, held on 5–6 March at the University.
Organised in collaboration with Utrecht University and the Eureka Institute for Translational Medicine, the meeting brought together international scholars to explore the challenges of translational medicine and the transition from laboratory discoveries to clinical application.
Over the two days, speakers from different fields examined the relationship between academia and industry, highlighting both the opportunities and the difficulties involved in translating research into practice.
The event encouraged an interdisciplinary approach consistent with the University’s ethos, bringing together medicine, psychology and philosophy. It also pointed to a broader issue: understanding contemporary medicine requires perspectives that go beyond the boundaries of any single discipline.
For this reason, philosophers today increasingly need to engage with the language, methods and problems of medicine and the life sciences in order to grasp their ethical, social and anthropological implications.
What is the difference between disinformation and misinformation?
Disinformation is the deliberate dissemination of false or manipulated information intended to mislead. Misinformation, by contrast, involves the spread of inaccurate information without deliberate intent, often arising from misunderstanding or oversimplification.
What is scientific disinformation?
Scientific disinformation occurs when research findings, medical data or scientific information are distorted or manipulated. It can shape public perceptions of science and medicine and contribute to the spread of false beliefs about treatments, drugs or health risks.
Why is disinformation a problem for medicine?
Disinformation can influence how people interpret health information and make decisions about their care. It may encourage ineffective or inappropriate practices and erode trust in scientific research and healthcare institutions.
What are cognitive biases in scientific communication?
Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation in how people interpret information. In scientific contexts, they can distort understanding and reinforce false beliefs. A common example is the use of antibiotics for influenza: although ineffective against viruses, patients may attribute their recovery to the medication, thereby reinforcing a mistaken assumption.
What is the role of bioethics in scientific research?
Bioethics examines the ethical dimensions of medicine and the life sciences. It addresses issues such as the protection of research participants, informed consent, risk management and the safeguarding of personal data in biomedical research.